Women of the Viking Age. Women warriors of ancient Scandinavia Women warriors of Scandinavia

DNA analysis confirmed that the mysterious master the viking war was actually a woman

The Tomb of Birka, Sweden, is the final resting place of the mysterious Viking war master. Nobody knows his name, but the things placed in the tomb leave no doubt. This was a high-ranking warrior.
Now DNA tests leave no doubt about another fact: it was a woman. The burial dates back to the tenth century AD, but was discovered in 1889. This is a very, very unique find, because few Vikings have earned such an honor.

Geographically, Sweden is a small country, and everything has been dug up by archaeologists, so there really are few such tombs. The harsh Vikings sent only outstanding warriors to the next world with honors.
Excavators initially discovered the warrior's body among several thousand Viking graves near the Swedish town of Birka, but for 130 years most researchers believed it was a man.

A few female soldiers were found, but none had the high-ranking attributes of the Birka burial, not just weapons and armor, but also game pieces and a board used for planning tactics.

However, careful analysis conducted by researchers from Uppsala University in Sweden led to a surprising conclusion. Bj 581, the mysterious warrior, was a woman about 30 years old at the time of her death. The bone and DNA analysis proved it.

Popular culture and centuries of epic fantasy stories have led us to believe that the myth of the Valkyries is true. However, until now there has been no evidence of the existence of these warriors.

It has previously been suggested that Viking society was more egalitarian than officially believed, and that half of the Viking warriors who raided Europe were probably women. This is, however, the first tangible evidence that women fought on equal terms and some became officers.

The amazing fact of gender balance in the rigid social order of the Vikings.

By the way, there was still controversy surrounding the participation of women in battles - it was difficult for gender-oriented scientists to agree with this possibility. They said that women simply accompanied them for the needs of the latter, that women did not fight - a girl with a battle ax and a heavy, crudely made sword - this cannot be. This DNA analysis closed the debate. I made a point.

Lagertha from the popular History channel series "Vikings" could not only exist in reality, but also be one of the many Scandinavian warriors.

The image of the legendary wife of the Viking Ragnar Lothbrok Lagertha was transferred to the popular series from medieval legends. The chronicles of Saxo Grammar tell the story of a woman with a brave heart who fights in the front ranks of the warriors on the battlefield with a sword. The medieval historian wrote about other Viking women who regularly participated in battles and exhausted themselves with training: “... There were women who dressed to look like men, and devoted every minute to exercise in military pursuits, they did not want to lose the strength of their valiant muscles and indulge in pampering luxury.”

In 1789, Danish playwright Kristen Henriksen Pram wrote the historical drama Lagertha based on the chronicles. Until recently, historians treated stories about medieval women warriors as fiction, legends, epic. However, archaeological excavations in Sweden have changed the understanding of this phenomenon.

Important find

Until recently, no one seriously thought about the existence of a real prototype of the legendary Viking queen, but in 2017 extremely important discoveries were made. At the end of the 19th century, near the ancient city of Birki, the remains of an Old Scandinavian warrior were discovered, buried along with two shields, a knife, spears and a sword. The fact that the buried person belonged to a high class was emphasized by the fact that his grave also contained the remains of two horses and objects for a game reminiscent of chess. This burial site has come to be considered one of the most important historical monuments of the Viking Age.

In the second half of the twentieth century, there was talk in the scientific world that the structure of the found skeleton was most likely female. At the beginning of the 21st century, Swedish anthropologist Anna Kjellström confidently confirmed these assumptions. The end to this issue was put in the fall of 2017: scientists from Stockholm University published the results of Viking DNA research in the American Journal of Physical Anthropology. The analysis showed that various bones of the skeleton lacked Y chromosomes, which means the skeleton belonged to a woman.

The conclusion about the existence of female warriors in medieval Scandinavia is also prompted by information about the broader (compared to other societies of that time) rights that women in this region had. They were not married off against their will; they, like men, were considered heirs to property and did not cease to own it upon marriage. In the Scandinavian epic, heroines, like men, are full participants in the action.

In the epic "Vikings", the wife of the Norman king Ragnar Lothbrok, along with other warriors, wears a sword and leather armor and fights valiantly. After Ragnar's death, she takes his throne, and power over her husband's lands passes to her.

Here is what Saxo Grammar writes about the Norman queen: “... An experienced woman in military affairs named Ladgerda, who had a courageous heart, although she was only a girl. With her hair flowing over her shoulders, she fought among the first among the bravest warriors. Everyone admired her unsurpassed feats, since her hair flowing behind her showed that she was a woman.”

Separately, the medieval chronicler highlights the fortitude of a warrior who, in a battle for power, kills her second husband Harald: “...In whose tender body an incomparably more severe spirit was hidden, with examples of her outstanding courage she was able to protect her already faltering warriors from the desire to flee. Having made a roundabout maneuver, she went to the rear of the unsuspecting enemy, sowing fear and confusion in his camp. In the end, Harald's army fell into confusion, and he himself, seeing the death of his soldiers, fled. Returning home after the battle, Ladgerda plunged the tip of a spear into her husband’s throat at night, which she hid in her dress, thus appropriating all his power and rank. This wayward woman considered it more convenient for herself to rule the kingdom without her husband than to be forced to share it with him.”

In the historical series, the role of Lagertha is played by an actress of Ukrainian origin with a Canadian passport, Katheryn Winnick. It is known that she has a bodyguard license.

In Viking times, women were especially respected and had special rights. It is hardly possible to talk about some kind of feminization of the society of the ancient Scandinavians, although many modern “gender” researchers say that the famous Scandinavian independence of women goes back to the Viking Age.

Correct behavior and the beauty of a woman were especially pleasant for the Vikings if they were combined with a sound mind, self-esteem and strong spirit. The Scandinavians believed that courageous women would have children like them. The famous king Ragnar Lodbrog said: “I chose for my sons a mother who passed on her fearlessness to them.” In many ways, the attention of men to such unfeminine qualities of the mothers of their future children was explained by the fact that the inhabitants of the North left their estates for a long time, going on long campaigns, and women had to raise future warriors.

But the girls also carefully chose their grooms. It was important for them that future husband proved himself on the battlefield, proved his courage and honesty in battle. Moreover, youth was often considered a flaw of the groom.

Men who stayed at home and never went on military campaigns, even being rich and handsome, were never successful with noble and proud maidens.

A necessary condition for marriage was the equality of the parties to be married.

Thus, equality of status, military prowess and high rank were desirable, if not necessary, conditions of marriage.

The difference in position could cause divorce. First of all, men of noble family tried to take advantage of this opportunity. There are many examples in the sagas when a king or jarl, having fallen in love with a noble woman, decided to divorce his wife, who was not of such high birth. Very often, origin was the main reason for the final decision. Thus, the sagas say that King Ragnar Lodbrog wanted to divorce Kraka, the daughter of a Norwegian bond, in order to marry Ingibjorg, the daughter of a Swedish king, but when Kraka revealed to him that she was the daughter of the glorious hero, Sigurd the Dragon Slayer, and her real name was Aslaug , Lodbrog kept her with him and did not mention Ingibjörg anymore.

Girls who had a father and brothers could not decide their fate themselves. A decent daughter always gave her father and older brother the right to choose her husband.

However, it was rare that relatives enslaved the girls and in most cases tried to listen to their opinion. The father was always the master of the house and the eldest in the family. Not only his daughters, but also his sons, no matter how noble warriors they were, obeyed him.

Only widows without fathers and orphan girls were independent. They had the right of their own consent to marriage, and, in accordance with the laws, the son could not marry his mother against her will. But even the second marriages of widowed daughters who returned to their father’s house, if their father was still alive, depended exclusively on him.

Only the father could marry off his daughter. After his death, if he had heirs, this right passed to his sixteen-year-old son, who also married off his sisters. Only in the absence of a son did the mother have the right to choose her daughter's husband.

However, if a twenty-year-old girl asked twice in vain for permission from her guardian to get married, she could get engaged to a third groom herself, having consulted in advance with one of her relatives whether this marriage was decent for her.

When fathers (or guardians) forced their daughters, nothing good came of it. One such case is told in Njal's Saga. The Icelander Haskuld had a daughter, Hallgerd Long-legged. She was distinguished by her beauty and courtesy, but her temperament was heavy and hot-tempered. Haskuld did not ask his daughter’s consent to the marriage, because he quickly wanted to marry her to the rich man Torvald. Proud Hallgerd was indignant, because she felt herself “given away to the first person she met.” However, the father was inexorable. He told Hallgerd: “I will not change my plans because of you and your stupid ambition. I decide, not you, since there is no agreement between us.” Hallgerd resigned herself and married Torvald. However, this marriage did not bring happiness to the newlywed. Less than six months later, she was able to ensure that Torvald was killed by her teacher.

The groom had to turn to the bride's father and convey the proposal to him. When setting off to get married, the groom dressed in his best dress. They never went to matchmaking alone, but only with their father or a close relative.

When the offer was made and received favorably, they began to negotiate marriage conditions. The groom announced how much property he was assigning to his future wife: this was called a “woman’s gift.” He also appointed a “friendly gift” (a ransom for a wife) to the future father-in-law, and the bride’s father, for his part, allocated a dowry to his daughter, which was her reward for the loss of rights to her father’s inheritance. Gifts and dowries were given in gold, silver, slaves, household utensils and livestock. The estate was never divided, and the daughter was never given a “piece” of it. This was done to keep it safe and sound land plot family.

"Women's gift" and dowry were considered the property of the wife. In the event of her husband's death or divorce from him, she was the sole and full owner of this movable property of hers. After the death of a woman, the gifts became the property of her husband and children, and if a woman died childless, then to her closest relatives.

This kind of wedding contract, which was called “bride purchase”, is an analogue of the modern marriage contract, in its essence, was a real trade deal, because according to its terms, the daughter of the family became the property of her husband. The agreement was concluded only in the presence of relatives on both sides.

After concluding the contract, they proceeded to the betrothal ceremony, during which the hands of the bride and groom were joined. The sign of the engagement was Thor's hammer, which was placed on the knees of the seated bride, whose head was covered with a veil.

A marriage performed without an engagement was called hasty and weak and was considered illegal. Every legitimate wife must be, according to the old expression, bought with gifts, or, in the words of the Visigothic law, with a gift and a word, that is, she must be married with the consent of the father and the council of relatives by prior agreement. She was called a married and legal wife, and her children became legitimate and had a priority right to the estate and property of their father.

A girl who was married without a ceremony, lured, kidnapped or a prisoner of war was considered a concubine, whatever her origin, and the children born in such a marriage were called illegitimate.

Premarital relationships with girls were not encouraged.

So, King Harald Fairhair, inflamed with passion for beautiful daughter Finn Svaya, wished to lie down with her on the very first night after meeting her. The father sternly answered the king that he could receive his daughter only after exchanging marriage vows. Violation of this rule was considered a grave offense not only to the bride, but also to all her relatives.

If, during a journey, a Viking accompanying a friend’s wife or someone else’s bride had to sleep in the same bed with her, then the ancient custom required that they put a sword or a board between them.

We find a striking example of such a rule in the “Song of Sigurd the Dragon Slayer” in the Elder Edda. Sigurd, in order to help his friend marry the warlike Brynhild, takes his guise, overcomes the fiery wall surrounding the bride’s home on his magic horse, and spends eight nights with Brynhild, but at night, on the bed between them, his naked sword, forged by the dwarf Regin, always lay. We find the same custom during chivalry. So, a naked sword lay on the bed between Tristan and Isolde. Historians believe that the medieval cult of the Beautiful Lady and the system of chivalry towards women arose under the influence of Christianity and, above all, the worship of the Virgin Mary - precisely from German customs in the field of marriage and family. These customs found their greatest and fullest development among the Scandinavians of the Viking Age.

The father cared about the honor of his wife, sister and daughter just as much as he cared about his own. Maiden honor and chastity were not only the “best adornment” of a girl, but also an indispensable condition for respect from fellow citizens and the opportunity to get married well and successfully.

Even such a sign of attention from the gentleman as a light kiss could be sufficient grounds for the girl’s father to demand, in accordance with the laws of that time, a large fine from the joker - and this provided that the kiss took place by mutual consent of the “parties.” If the kiss was broken by the boy against the girl’s wishes, then the penalties were toughened. And the culprit could even be sentenced to exile from his homeland.

An ancient Swedish law says: “If you take a woman by the hand, pay half a mark if she complains; if you take her by the hand, pay eight marks; if you take her by the shoulder, pay five marks; if she takes her by the chest, pay a whole eurir.” This is how the Scandinavians respected the honor of their sisters and daughters. The laws even prescribed punishments for a torn dress or a torn headband!

The ancient laws of Sweden call the fallen girl a woman dependent on the mercy of her father and mother. Her parents could do with her as they saw fit: they either forgave her or deprived her of her honest daughter’s rights.

In Scandinavia, early marriages were not common. Of course, it happened that fifteen-year-old girls got married, but such cases were very rare. As we said above, girls in Viking times were proud and reasonable and preferred to wait for a good groom, even if they had to wait a long time.

As a rule, people got married no earlier than twenty years of age, and got married after reaching twenty-five, and most often thirty, years of age.

It happened that marriage was postponed for many years. The delay time was determined at the betrothal: usually the wedding was postponed for three years, in cases where the bride was very young or the groom went on an important journey or sea voyage. In this case, the girl was considered the named wife.

If the groom did not appear after the agreed period, the bride could marry someone else. However, it happened that the groom stayed longer than a certain time, the bride got married, and then the betrothed husband suddenly appeared. In this case, the insult could be washed away either with blood or with the payment of vira. The insult was especially severe if the intended wife married another groom before the end of the deferment. In that case young husband death awaited him, unless he himself succeeded in killing his betrothed husband first.

However, the girl still had the right to change her decision. One Swedish law of later times states that if “a woman’s feelings change” after a legal betrothal, then she is obliged to return the betrothal gifts and pay 3 marks of vira and, moreover, to restore the good name of the groom must confirm in the presence of twelve men that “she does not know any vice or shortcoming of the groom and his relatives and did not know this during his matchmaking and betrothal.” The same law was also valid if the groom broke his promise, but in this case the gifts were not returned to the bride. If a legally engaged bride refused to marry her groom three times within a year, he would gather her relatives and take her by force wherever he found her, but she was considered legally taken and not kidnapped.

In those days when the kidnapping of girls and other people's brides was one of the great feats, the trip of the engaged bride to the groom's house often became dangerous. Therefore, the groom usually sent an armed squad of friends and relatives after her. They had to take the girl under their protection and take her to her husband. Such a squad was called the bride's squad. It was headed by a friend. When the bride's squad arrived at her father's house, the first thing they did was demand guarantees of peace and security from the owner. After the guarantees were received, the groom's envoys arrived and gave the owner of the estate weapons and saddles, which were locked in a special room. The groomsman accepted the bride's dowry instead of the groom. After several days of feasting, the bride's party, along with her, her father and close relatives, went to the groom's house, where the wedding took place. In the evening, the bride was solemnly escorted to her wedding bed. The next day, as a reward for her virginity, the groom gave her a gift, called the morning gift.

From this morning, the bride became the legal wife and mistress of the estate. She was given a bunch of keys to all buildings. The bundle was always with the mistress, and only she, the sovereign ruler of the estate, decided all economic issues: she was in charge of procuring provisions and cooking, washing and cleaning, mending dresses, weaving and knitting. It was she who gave orders to the maids, workers and slaves.

In the Old Scandinavian language there were special words that denoted the rights and responsibilities of the mistress of the estate: this is “managing” the keys and the house, or the internal management of the estate. There was also a special legal term - external management of the house. But this was already the owner’s responsibility.

It was the man, the owner of the estate, who decided the issues of purchases and sales of anything, trips to relatives and tings, issues of marriage of daughters and marriage of sons. Since family ties were very strong in those distant times, the woman always sought to maintain contact with her relatives and very often took the side of her father and brothers in controversial issues. Therefore, the husband tried not to let his wife go to her father very often. In addition, the wife could not stay with her relatives without permission for longer than the period appointed by her husband.

The husband could punish his wife as he wanted. However, if he seriously insulted his wife, he risked running into her relatives, who had the legal right to interfere in her life if necessary. If the wife had serious reasons for this, she could turn to her father or older brother for help and always received it. An unfaithful husband or a husband who beat his wife could, at best, be called to account at the Thing, and at worst, killed.

It was considered shameful not only to fight with women, but even to scold them. The only excuse for the “beaters” could be the wife’s dissipation.

Women in Viking times knew how to fight for their rights and were not afraid to seem funny or ridiculous in the eyes of others. Thus, the “Saga of Njal” tells about Unn the daughter of Murd, who was not afraid to confess to her father (and subsequently bring the divorce case to public discussion) that her husband “cannot be her husband, and there is no use for her from him.” like a man, although in all other respects he is no different from others."

Viking women were not only guardians of the hearth, but also of ancient customs and traditions, and often of family honor. There are a great many examples in the sagas when it was women who incited their husbands to avenge the violated honor of the family with blood and not to take vira - a despicable metal.

Women, if necessary, were ready to lead the squad themselves and intervene in the “combat operations”, making the most unexpected decisions.

Thus, the Saga of Grettir tells that one day the owners of the farms in Iceland that Grettir had robbed seized him and decided to hang him. Thorbjorg, the landlady from Lake Fjord, who was passing by, was, as the saga says, “a woman of remarkable and great wisdom.” She decided to intervene in the outrage that was happening, in her opinion, because it was not right for the “little people” to hang such a noble man as Grettir without any special kind, even though such an execution would have been “deserved” for him. However, she did not want to let Grettir go just like that, and therefore demanded an oath from him “not to commit more outrages on the Ice Fjord” and “not to take revenge on any of those who participated in the attack” on him. When Grettir made such an oath to her, then Torbjorg freed him and invited him to stay with her in the estate until her husband arrived. This, as the saga says, “made her very famous throughout the area.” But such an act did not at all please her husband Vermund - and he demanded an explanation from his wife. “I did this because I had many reasons for it,” Torbjorg answered him. “And the first thing is that you will have more honor, since your wife dared to do this. In addition, Hrefna, Grettir’s relative, would have wanted it, so that I wouldn’t allow him to be killed. And the third thing is that he himself is a great hero in many ways.” Vermund was pleased with his wife’s explanation and answered her: “To everyone, you wise woman, and accept my gratitude."

Women enjoyed many rights in society. She could inherit the rights of the leader of the community and at the same time could retain the “position” of the priest of the local temple.

Thus, one of the sagas tells about a woman named Steinvör, who was a priestess in the temple and supported it with her own donations and donations from parishioners.

A woman could own and manage property. She could inherit the land not only after the death of her husband, but also after the death of her children, who had no other close heirs.

In some areas of Scandinavia, a daughter could claim her parents' inheritance along with her sons. And a man could be considered a legitimate scion of the royal family and claim the throne if he had royal ancestors in his family only on his mother’s side.

Not only did the Vikings prefer not to quarrel with their wives, but it also happened that there were “henpecked” men among them.

The Saga of Saint Olav tells the story of Thorberg, son of Arni, who agreed to hide the Icelander Stein, son of Skafti, in his estate against his own will, since the Icelander was outlawed by King Olav. However, Thorberg had to hide the criminal only because his wife Ragnhild wanted it, threatening that if Stein left, both she and her son Eystein Grouse would leave with him. Torberg was accused of harboring the Icelander not only by strangers, but also by his closest relatives. And his brother Finn said that “it’s bad when a woman rules and when a wife forces you to break allegiance to your king.”

The wives of the ancient Scandinavians, as has already become clear, were distinguished by their stern character. But they also knew how to love - to love “to the grave.”

The example from “Njal’s Saga” about the fidelity of Njal’s wife Bergthora has already become a textbook example. When Njal’s sons came to be burned in the house by their enemies, then, in accordance with the Viking code of honor, Njal himself, already a very old man, and his wife were asked to leave the house, because “they could have died innocently in the fire.” But Njal refused because, in his words, he was “an old man and would hardly ever be able to avenge his sons, and he did not want to live with shame.” Bergthora simply said that “she was given to Njal young and promised him that they would have the same fate,” and chose to burn alive in the house with her husband and her children and grandchildren.

Jealousy was no stranger to women of those distant times. All in the same "Saga of Njal", which is considered one of the most famous, tells about an Icelander named Hrut. He wintered with his ship in Norway with King Harald Grayskin and began to live with the king's mother Gunnhild, who was known for her ability to cast magic. When Hrut was about to return to Iceland and marry there, this caused a flash of jealousy in Gunnhild, and at parting she hugged Hrut and gave him a golden hoop, saying: “If my power over you is as great as I think, then you will not You will have fun in Iceland with the girl who is on your mind, and with other women you will achieve what you want." And so it happened. Khrut could not live with his wife. “When he comes to me,” she complained, “his flesh is so great that he cannot have pleasure with me, and although we both try our best, nothing works.” As a result, they divorced. It must be said that Gunnhild’s witchcraft was directed, and her revenge was unusually sophisticated: with other women, except for his wife, Hrut succeeded.

The love of men was no less strong.

In the "Saga of Gunnlaug the Serpenttongue" there is a story about great love Gunnlaug and Helgi, who was tricked into marrying Hraven, who loved her no less than Gunnlaug. He even committed a dishonorable act and acted basely, secretly inflicting a mortal wound on him only because he could not “give up Helyu the Beauty to him.” After the death of Gunnlaug and Hravn, Helga was given by her father in marriage to Thorkell, a rich and worthy man, and also a good skald. He also loved her very much, and when Helga died in his arms, taking his last look at the cloak Gunnlaug had given him, he composed the following poem:

Died today
My good wife.
In my husband's arms
I gave my life to God.
I'm alive without her
It's hard to stay 30.

In the society of that time, as we said above, divorces were also allowed. The reason for divorce could be either the husband's dissatisfaction with his wife, or vice versa. However, the reasons for divorce had to be given by the parties very serious.

If the husband sent his wife home to her relatives without explanation, then he inflicted a mortal insult on them and, in addition, had to return his wife’s dowry and betrothal gifts, as well as all gifts made by any person and himself to his wife during the marriage.

The dissolution of the marriage had to be announced in the presence of witnesses at the marital bed, then at the main doors of the house and, finally, at the Thing.

A wife could not take property with her during a divorce if she had committed a crime or earned her husband’s anger - for example, by adultery. A married woman caught in this crime immediately lost all her rights and was expelled from the house in what she was wearing. According to the prescription of one law of that time, “the husband must bring the unfaithful wife to the threshold, tear off her cloak and, cutting off half of her clothes from the back, push her out the door.”

Wives could also demand a divorce. However, if they left their husband’s house without sufficient reason, they could not demand the return of their dowry and gifts. Husbands could force such wives to return.

One saga tells how Helgi, the daughter of the Icelander Thoradd, left him for her father in the absence of her husband Thorgils, because she did not like living with her husband, who was much older than her. When Thorgils returned home and learned about his wife’s departure, he armed himself and hastily went to his father-in-law’s estate. He entered the house fully armed and, without saying a word, took Helgi by the hand and led him away. Skafti, Helga's brother, wanted to pursue him with his men as the kidnapper of his sister, but Thoradd told him: “Torgils took what belonged to him, and therefore I forbid pursuing him.” And Thorgils kept his wife by force. One day, when they were sitting in the yard, a rooster chased a chicken around the yard and beat it. The chicken clucked desperately. "Do you see this picture?" – Thorgils asked Helgi. "What does this mean?" – she asked. “The same thing can happen to you,” answered Thorgils. At this point Helgi had to moderate her pride, and from then on they lived well with each other.

But if the husband denied his wife what she needed, did not care about her and the children, treated her badly, offended her relatives, or out of cowardice did not want to help them defend themselves from enemies or fulfill a duty of honor, then the wife had legitimate reasons to seek a divorce from such a husband.

There are many examples in the sagas when wives divorced their husbands or threatened to return their keys to them if they did not help their relatives in trouble or did not defend the honor of the family. Inaction, cowardice and failure to fulfill an oath were considered a terrible sin and a very good reason for divorce.

In the "Saga of Hörd and the Islanders" there is a story about the Icelander Thorbjörg, who announced at the Thing that she would destroy anyone who killed her brother, Hörd, although her husband, Indridi, was one of his worst enemies.

Hurd was not distinguished by his gentle character and particular kindness towards his sister. He even wanted to burn down Indridi's estate and himself. He invited his sister to leave the house, but she refused, saying that she would remain with her husband forever. When the islanders and Heard brought bundles of firewood to the house, Indridi and his people, thanks to Thorbjorg’s prophetic dream and a stream brought to the house in advance, managed to extinguish the fire. But Hurd did not calm down even here and, together with others, diverted the stream from the house. His sister and her husband were saved only by the arrival of help. However, Thorbjorg still continued to defend her brother and publicly announced that she would take revenge for him.

Hurd was soon killed by Thorstein the Golden Button. Indridi, who also participated in that battle, returned home and, in the presence of witnesses, told his wife about the death of his son-in-law. Thorbjorg learned that her brother was killed by a blow in the back when he was unarmed. In the evening, when the couple went to bed, Torbjorg tried to stab her husband in bed, but he managed to intercept the knife and in the process severely injure his hand. Indridi asked his wife what should be done so that she would forgive him. Thorbjorg demanded Thorstein's head from him, otherwise threatening divorce. The next day Indridi killed him and brought the head to his wife. But Thorbjorg agreed to make peace with her husband and to always be his faithful wife on one more condition: she wanted to take the wife and children of her murdered brother into her house. The husband allowed this, and everyone praised Thorbjorg's action, saying that she was an honest woman.

In addition, wives could divorce “without problems” even if the husband became impoverished and could not support the family, caused harm to his wife or caused a mortal offense, and also if the husband behaved inappropriately - for example, wore women's clothing. In addition, the wife had the right to demand a divorce if, after the wedding, the husband refused to hand over the keys to her.

Divorced spouses could enter into a second marriage. If death dissolved the marriage, the surviving spouse had complete freedom to enter into a new union. Polygamy was not customary, but it was not considered a violation of the sanctity of marriage if the husband had many concubines.

The Scandinavians were very fond of women, and kings and other noble people often had a large number of concubines. The German bishop Adam of Bremen even wrote with indignation that the Swedes, in accordance with their wealth, could have not one, but several wives. However, historians believe that they were not talking about legal spouses, but about concubines or slaves.

Slave girls accompanied the Norman squads on campaigns and trade trips. They not only served their masters, but were also used for lovemaking. In addition, their main value lay in the fact that they were a commodity that could be sold in the East much more profitably than furs or walrus ivory.

The Arab merchant Ibn Fadlan, who met the “Rus” (Sveev) on the Volga, wrote: “They come from their country and build large wooden houses on the banks of the river, and ten or twenty people gather in such a house, and each has his own bench , and with them the girls are a delight for the merchants. And so one of them gets together with his girl, and his friend looks at him. Sometimes many of them get together in this position, one against the other.”

Children born from such connections were considered illegitimate, but if necessary or at the request of the father, they could inherit his property and even the estate. Many illegitimate children faced an unenviable fate: at the behest of the owner of the estate, who was often their father, they could be drowned or taken into the forest to be eaten by wild animals.

In one of the sagas we read: “When Iceland was still completely pagan, there was a custom that people who were poor and had a large family took their children to a deserted place and left them there.” This custom also existed in other Scandinavian countries.

Very often, slaves who carried children into the forest, choosing a place close to some dwelling or a high road, laid them between stones or in hollow trees, trying to keep the babies alive - and often succeeded in this, for it happened that such children, remaining alive, were carefully raised by those who found them.

Children, as they said then, were “abandoned” if the family, due to extreme poverty, could not feed the child, if the baby was illegitimate, which could bring dishonor to the family, or whose mother for some reason was not loved by the father, or if their the birth was preceded by prophetic dreams, foreshadowing misfortunes and troubles that would come to the family with a newborn.

Thus, in the “Saga of Gunnlaug Snaketongue” the birth of Thorstein’s beautiful daughter Helga is told. Shortly before her birth, her father had a dream, which, being interpreted by one wise Norwegian, said that two noble people would woo Helga, fight each other over her, and both would die in this battle. The father decided to “abandon” the girl, but the mother saved her life by secretly sending her to her relative. The prediction came true - and at one time, two noble people really fought because of Helga and both fell in that battle.

The pagan custom of “carrying out” children lasted in Iceland for some time after the official adoption of Christianity there by the Althing in 1000.

The Saga of Saint Olaf says that “King Olav inquired in detail about how Christianity was observed in Iceland. He believed that it was poorly observed there, since the laws there allowed eating horse meat, bearing children and doing many other things that were contrary to Christian faith and what the pagans did."

However, in later times only poor families were allowed to bear children.

The 10th-century Vigi Saga says that during an extremely severe winter, a local priest offered to donate money to the temple, “carry out” the babies, and kill the old people - due to the unbearable circumstances of life and the real threat to the strong members of society to die.

After the adoption of Christianity, the laws of all Scandinavian states specifically “stipulated” the system of fines for killing a child and the process of declaring a child dead. Thus, the Swedish law “Gutalag” states that every woman in labor must indicate to her family in advance where she is going to give birth. In the event of the death of a child, witnesses must confirm that he died a natural death. In general, the law says, every child should be fed and “not thrown away.”

The newborn was placed on the floor in the house, and no one dared to pick him up until the father decided whether to abandon him or accept him into the family. In the latter case, he was lifted from the ground and carried to his father, who took him in his arms, doused him with water and gave him a name. This was called carrying children to their father. The name itself served as a talisman, was personified, significant and had great power.

Let us at least recall the well-known fact that the Russian people considered it impermissible to call the devil by his own name - especially on certain days - so as not to invite trouble, so that the evil one would not hear and come to the call.

It is well known that the names of various peoples are one of the important components folk spirit and are always full of deep meaning. In ancient times, a name meant so much and had such great power, that to call oneself by another person’s name meant to harm him. IN Ancient Rus' the great princes, having adopted a Christian name after baptism, hid it from those around them, fearing divination 31.

Of course, someone could object that Russian names have not the slightest relation to Old Scandinavian names - and they would be completely wrong, for any name in any language, and even more so in such ancient times, when people sought to protect themselves from mysterious and magical powers nature, was personified and carried certain information, served as a talisman 32.

In the family of the ancient Scandinavians, they tried to give a child, primarily a boy-heir, a family name, most often in honor of a deceased ancestor, so that the newborn could enter the world of the family immediately after birth.

The family name connected the child with the history of the family and passed this connection into the future. Therefore, it is not surprising when they began to see the child as a relative after whom he was named. The Saga of Egil says: “Skallagrim and Bera had a lot of children, but they all died at first. Then a son was born to them, and they doused him with water and named him Thorolf. He grew tall and very handsome early on. one said that he was very similar to Thorolf the son of Kveldulf, after whom he was named."

In the Saga of Sverrir, Olav the Saint calls the king Magnus in a dream, thereby as if accepting him into his family and blessing him, because the name Magnus means “Great” and “belonged” to many famous kings, including the son and heir of Olav the Saint Magnus Good one.

Pouring water was an ancient ritual during which a child was dedicated to the gods. From that moment on, they looked at him as if he had entered into a relationship. Killing such a child was considered a crime.

In the absence of the father, and sometimes in his presence, the responsibility of pouring and naming the child was assumed by another; For this purpose, significant and rich people were usually elected; That’s how it was, at least, among the nobles. This rite marked the beginning of the closest mutual relations between the godparents and their godchildren and obliged them to mutual friendship and affection.

When children started teething, fathers usually gave them gifts - slaves or some precious things. These gifts were called dental cattle. Until the age of 15, children lived in complete freedom and spent time with other peers in activities characteristic of their age: daughters learned from their mothers how to weave, sew and other women's handicrafts, and sons engaged in military exercises. Nowhere in the sagas is it mentioned that fathers severely punished their sons, but in case of strong anger they drove them out of their homes.

Children were often given to be raised by smart and sensible friends or relatives. If someone wanted to show his respect and affection to another or to become even closer to him, he usually volunteered to take his son into custody and, as a sign that he accepted all fatherly responsibilities, he sat the child on his lap, which is why children taken into care were called old times sitting on their knees.

They sent children (primarily sons) to be raised in homes wise people widows and Viking fathers who could not raise sons themselves. If boys did not have natural fathers, educators had to reward them with property and arrange their happiness. Thus, Njal was able to “get” the named son not only a profitable bride, but also a position as a judge in Iceland.

To destroy a foster child or cause him any harm was considered a low deed.

NOTES

25. Necklace of the Brisings - the famous golden necklace of Freya, which was given to her by the underground dwarfs of the Brisings, warning that it would bring a lot of misfortune to the Aesir. There are several myths associated with this necklace (see retelling in the appendices).

26. Thor rides in a chariot drawn by two goats.

27. Siv's husband is Thor.

28. Var – goddess of vows.

29. Per. S. Sviridenko.

30. Per. M. I. Steblin-Kamensky.

31. People's memory has associated certain character traits of individual people with names, noting their most striking manifestations in apt statements. A register of such characteristics has been preserved in the folklore works of the Russian people:

Constant lady Varvara
The Great Disaster Elena
Fat and simple Afrosinya
Good voice Domna
Take a look and comfort Arina
Sophia promises not to lie
With Vasilisa's eyes clouded
Marimyan's impudent arrogance
Songs to sing Daria
It's a bad lie Agafya
If Marina says anything, she will feed her
Black

Viking women

Leaving a farm or estate for any length of time, a free man, at a gathering of many people, solemnly handed over the keys to the house to his wife, thus showing everyone that she became the full mistress in his absence. These keys took place next to the others in a bunch that each married woman had with her and in which were also the most important keys that closed the locks of the chests with the most precious items that the family had.

In almost every respect, women in Viking society had a status equal to that of men. Even when the owner was at home, it was not in his power, but in the power of his wife, that all matters relating to the management of the household were in charge, it was she who looked after the slaves and free servants and maids who helped her in the daily work of spinning, weaving, sewing, preparing drinks and food.

One of the most important and time-consuming responsibilities was making clothes for the whole family. Most Viking Age clothing was made from broadcloth, which required a lengthy process of obtaining thread from sheep's wool and then dyeing it. Only then, with the help of a heavy and crude device like a primitive loom, was the cloth produced. If there was flax, it was ruffled, wound on a spindle and woven, making linen fabric, which, presumably, was used for underwear.

Danish bracelet of the 10th century (National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen).

IN free time women must have been weaving ribbons that were used to decorate clothing. Among other typically female crafts were embroidery and the production of decorative fabrics, or tapestries, which were hung on the walls of the halls in the main rooms. If a family owned a ship or boat, the women and probably the older members of the family had to make the sails, a task that required enormous effort and many man-hours.

Archaeological finds allow us to conclude that Viking women (and even men) were neat, well-groomed and took care of their own appearance. At the dawn of the 10th century, Ibn Fadlan noticed that the Russians were “excellently built and strong” and that their women wore wonderful jewelry made of silver and gold, which spoke of the wealth and high social status of their husbands. Visited in 950 A.D. In the prosperous city of Hedeby, an Arab merchant named al-Tartushi also spoke enthusiastically about the Viking women he met. Speaking of their beauty, he was obviously dismayed by the degree of independence they enjoyed.

From an early age, Viking women learned to rely on themselves and not expect help from anyone. Icelandic law allowed girls to get married from the age of 12, and since farms and estates were sometimes many kilometers apart, relatives were in charge of choosing a future life partner for the girl. It happened, however, that women had to decide marriage issues on their own. They had the right to own property and inherit it.

If the need arose, a woman could demand a divorce, and upon leaving, take back the dowry and share in joint property. If a woman became a widow, she had the honor of deciding whether to remarry or continue to be a widow. The fact that women were penetrated strong feeling their own importance and sometimes became wealthy and influential members of Viking society, is evident from the quality of the objects found in their graves and the honor with which the burials were performed. Praises were sung in their honor, praising the virtues of women as housewives, their skill in managing family household affairs, and especially the skill of seamstresses and embroiderers.

If you believe the writings of the skalds, some of the Viking women were distinguished by their authority and sometimes cruelty. In the sagas, the authors do not skimp on bright colors, telling about the deeds of women strong in mind and spirit in the style of a matriarchal community, leading the fight in bloody civil strife and captivating men with their own courage to battle. Stories about the exploits of one of these women, the daughter of Erik the Red, Freydis, have come to us thanks to the saga of "Gronlanding" (or "Greenlanders"). Freydis and her husband Torvar, together with two brothers, Helgi and Finnbogi, set out from Greenland on two ships to a joint expedition to Vinland (a forested region in North America. - Note lane.). Having arrived there safely, Freydis made a plan to get rid of the brothers and take possession of their ship, and persuaded her husband to kill them themselves and kill the entire crew.

Before us is a Danish amulet from the 10th century with the image of a Scandinavian woman; it is 4 cm in height and made of silver covered with gilding and enamel. The woman is wearing an embellished dress, apparently worn over a pleated shirt, left hand holds a shawl covering the figure's shoulders. Long hair combed and tied in a knot at the back (State Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen).

Viking women in the 9th–10th centuries. The illustration shows Viking women doing their usual housework, wearing clothing typical of the period.

When Torvar did not want to kill the five women who were traveling with Helgi and Finnbogi, Freydis took the ax and successfully completed the work for her husband. Although this story reflects an extreme case of the behavior of women among the Vikings, it gives us the opportunity to learn that, if we are talking about Scandinavian women, representatives of the fair half of humanity not only kept the family hearth, but also ventured into dangerous enterprises together with their husbands, and exercised the right for a share in production. The most curious thing, however, that we learn about the position of women in Viking society is the fact that, although they had access to the Thing, they were denied the right to vote.